Abstract

Paracetamol (PA) ranks among the most frequently prescribed over-the-counter analgesic and antipyretic agents worldwide; nonetheless, overdose scenarios are associated with severe hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic consequences, while its incomplete metabolic removal renders it a persistent micropollutant in surface and wastewater systems. These concerns underscore the urgent need for rapid, cost-efficient, and highly sensitive analytical tools capable of quantifying PA at trace levels in complex matrices. In the present study, spherical gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were fabricated through an environmentally benign route exploiting an aqueous extract of Juniperus sp. leaves as the reducing and capping agent, with polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) serving as an additional colloidal stabilizer. The resulting nanoparticles were immobilized on a glassy carbon electrode to construct an AuNPs/PVP/GCE sensing platform. Physicochemical characterization by UV–Vis spectroscopy, dynamic light scattering (DLS), and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) verified the spherical morphology, narrow size distribution, and colloidal stability of the synthesized AuNPs, and further confirmed a 3.5-fold enlargement of the electroactive surface area relative to the unmodified electrode. Under fully optimized conditions, the fabricated sensor delivered a well-defined linear voltammetric response toward PA oxidation across the concentration interval of 0.05–0.31 µM (R2 = 0.9939), with a limit of detection of 0.024 µM and a limit of quantification of 0.080 µM. The sensor retained its analytical accuracy in the presence of common co-existing species, including ascorbic acid, uric acid, dopamine, caffeine, ibuprofen, and adrenaline. Quantitative determination of PA in commercial tablet formulations via the standard addition approach yielded results in close agreement with the declared content, confirming the practical suitability of the AuNPs/PVP/GCE platform for routine pharmaceutical quality control.

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