Abstract

The Brazilian Amazon is a contested frontier, shaped by destructive and conservationist forces. Most forest clearing is driven by agro-extractivism, an agrarian pathway based on raw commodity production. The socio-biodiversity economy (SBE) has emerged in response, widely regarded as a transformative agrarian pathway capable of reconciling environmental conservation and rural livelihoods. However, recent research suggests that, as socio-biodiversity products scale up, agro-extractivist dynamics can be reproduced within the SBE. We examine this tension in the cocoa frontier of the Transamazon, where cocoa is institutionally promoted as an SBE alternative. We conduct an exploratory, mixed-methods study combining a geospatial analysis of land use and land cover (LULC) change (2020–2025, random forest classification) with a qualitative analysis drawing on participatory mapping and 87 semi-structured interviews with farmers, cooperatives, buyers, and institutional actors. Using a gradient framework, we read LULC transitions and farmers’ land use practices along an agro-extractivism–SBE continuum. The cocoa frontier emerges as a hybrid geography. The landscape is predominantly stable but internally reorganizing: anthropogenic forest declines while full-sun monoculture expands over pasture, with intensification concentrated in peri-urban areas and restoration in remote ones. Land use practices form five recurring configurations, two firmly anchored at the socio-biodiversity or agro-extractivist poles and three whose alignment with the SBE depends on access to markets, knowledge, and institutions. We argue that the frontier contestation unfolds not only between distinct economies but within the cocoa economy itself, and we identify the policy areas relevant to sustaining SBE-oriented practices in the Transamazon. More broadly, this study suggests that the classification of Amazonian forest-based economies as inherent alternatives to agro-extractivism should be treated as an empirical question rather than an assumption.

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