Abstract

Groundwater is an essential freshwater resource in the Western Himalayas, where increasing anthropogenic pressure and environmental variability are raising concerns regarding groundwater quality and water security. However, regionally integrated assessments of groundwater-quality variability across the Western Himalayan states remain limited. This study evaluates groundwater quality across Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, and Uttarakhand using groundwater-monitoring data obtained from the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB). A total of 338 observation wells monitored during 2019–2022 were analyzed using the weighted arithmetic Water Quality Index (WQI) based on Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) and World Health Organization (WHO) drinking-water guidelines. Spatial and temporal variability were examined through hydrochemical, correlation, and geospatial analyses. The results reveal substantial regional and district-level variability in groundwater quality across the Western Himalayas. Groundwater in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand is predominantly classified as excellent to good, whereas Jammu and Kashmir exhibit greater hydrochemical heterogeneity and localized groundwater deterioration. Elevated WQI values are concentrated within foothill and valley-transition districts, while high-altitude recharge zones generally maintain lower WQI values. Hydrochemical analyses indicate that groundwater-quality variability is primarily associated with mineralization processes, lithological controls, and localized anthropogenic influences. Temporal analysis further indicates moderate groundwater-quality improvement between 2019 and 2022, particularly in parts of Jammu and Kashmir. Overall, the findings demonstrate that groundwater systems across the Western Himalayas remain largely controlled by hydrogeological conditions but are increasingly modified by localized anthropogenic pressures. Strengthened groundwater monitoring, protection of recharge zones, and targeted management of vulnerable foothill and valley-transition environments will be essential for sustaining long-term water security in this climate-sensitive mountain region.

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