Abstract

Driven by competition, innovation, and shifting market demands, the automotive industry has evolved from mass production to high-mix, low-volume manufacturing, increasing operator flexibility and cognitive load. Virtual Reality (VR) can support training if aligned with user needs. This study presents a VR assembly training prototype with varying support levels and evaluates its effects on performance, physiological responses, and user experience in eleven operators, categorized by VR experience (novices vs. experts). User experience was positive, though improvements are needed in perceived bodily ownership. Novices completed tasks slower than experts (Welch’s t-test, t(16.84) = −2.50, p = 0.023, d = −1.14), while no differences in hint usage were observed (χ2(1) = 1.02, p = 0.313). Mixed repeated-measures ANCOVAs revealed significant effects of support level and VR experience (p = 0.032; p = 0.046) on heart rate, but not on breathing rate or galvanic skin response (GSR). Mixed repeated-measures ANOVAs showed significant effects of task buzzer and support level on heart rate and breathing rate (p = 0.018; p = 0.005), with no effects for GSR. Although results warrant caution due to the small sample size, findings highlight the importance of support design and provide insights for future research on VR-based assembly training.

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